Public vs private sector employment: An exploratory study of career choice among graduate management students in Botswana

Author(s):

Eddy S.W. Ng, (Rowe School of Business, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Canada)

Charles W. Gossett, (Department of Public Policy and Administration, California State University, Sacramento, California, USA)

Samuel Chinyoka, (Department of Management, University of Botswana, Gaborone, Botswana)

Isaac Obasi, (Department of Public Administration, University of Abuja, Abuja, Nigeria)

...Show all authors

Abstract:

Purpose

The purpose of this paper is to explore the factors that may be related to a career choice in the public vs the private sector in a developing African country.

Design/methodology/approach

Using a sample of graduate management students, the authors tested reward preferences and altruism, elements of public service motivation, on their generalizability to a developing country in Africa. The authors also examine the role of career attitudes, individual personality factors, and cultural values on a career choice in public service.

Findings

The authors find that not all the factors associated with the choice of sector (public or private) found in previous studies apply in the Botswana context.

Research limitations/implications

Perry and Wise (1990) developed the concept of public service motivation to explain why individuals may be motivated to serve the public. However, two of the factors associated with public service, intrinsic motivation, and altruism, were not predictive of a career choice in the public sector in Botswana, and thus may limit its generalizability outside of western developed countries.

Practical implications

In Botswana and other developing economies, government jobs are considered to provide lucrative and stable employment, and attract educated citizens regardless of motivations. However, as the private-for-profit sector is emerging, these countries could soon be facing serious competition for top university students, and will need to develop a strategy for attracting the best talents to choose employment in the public sector over career options in the private sector.

Originality/value

The present study seeks to further the understanding on how individuals make a career choice between public vs private sector management in a developing country.

Keywords:

Quantitative, Career choice, Botswana, Protean career, Public service motivation, National culture

Type:

Research paper

Publisher:

Emerald Group Publishing Limited

Received:

29 October 2014

Revised:

22 May 2015, 03 October 2015

Accepted:

11 November 2015

Acknowledgments:

Eddy S.W. Ng gratefully acknowledges support from the F.C. Manning Chair in Economics and Business, Rowe School of Business, Dalhousie University.

Copyright:

© Emerald Group Publishing Limited 2016
Published by Emerald Group Publishing Limited
Licensed re-use rights only

Citation:

Eddy S.W. Ng, Charles W. Gossett, Samuel Chinyoka, Isaac Obasi, (2016) "Public vs private sector employment: An exploratory study of career choice among graduate management students in Botswana", Personnel Review, Vol. 45 Issue: 6, pp.1367-1385, https://doi.org/10.1108/PR-10-2014-0241

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Article

Introduction

Section:ChooseTop of pageIntroduction <<Conceptual background and...MethodMeasuresFindingsDiscussionConclusionReferencesFurther readingCorresponding Author

An interest in understanding a career choice in management has been developing in different national contexts (Malach-Pines et al., 2008; Özbilgin et al., 2005; Tanova et al., 2008; Thatchenkery and Koizumi, 2010). At the same time, literature in public administration that examines the reasons why some people are attracted to public service is also emerging (e.g. Perry and Wise, 1990; Perry et al., 2010). Specifically, public administration researchers have been working to develop the concept of public service motivation as a key element that helps to predict the likelihood that a person would choose a career in the public sector rather than in the private sector. Most studies have been conducted using American (Rainey and Steinbauer, 1999; Brewer and Selden, 1998; Brewer et al., 2000; Pandey et al., 2008), Western European (Vandenabeele, 2008; Vandenabeele et al., 2006; Leisink and Steijn, 2009; Groeneveld et al., 2009; Ritz, 2009), and Australian samples (Taylor, 2007, 2008), although there have been recent studies in Korea (Kim, 2006, 2009) and China (Liu et al., 2008). The present study seeks to further our understanding on how individuals make career choices by using a sample of students who were enrolled in either the Master of Public Administration[1] (MPA) or the Master of Business Administration (MBA) programs at the University of Botswana. The findings are expected to extend the generalizability of both public service motivation and career choice theorizing to a developing economy in general, and to Africa in particular.

Conceptual background and hypotheses

Section:ChooseTop of pageIntroductionConceptual background and... <<MethodMeasuresFindingsDiscussionConclusionReferencesFurther readingCorresponding Author

The present study seeks to explore, in the context of a developing African country, the factors that may contribute to pursuing a career in public service rather than the private sector via graduate management training. We begin with the assumption that selection of a graduate degree program is indicative of a career choice, as does much of the literature on career choice which is based on surveys of graduate-level students (e.g. Carpenter et al., 2012; Ng et al., 2008; Tschirhart et al., 2008). It is important to study career choice among individuals in developing economies because managerial competency is essential for successful national development and also personal socio-economic mobility for the individual. Individuals pursuing an MBA and a career in the private sector stand to benefit from increased social capital (Baruch, 2009), salary gains and promotions (Cocchiara et al., 2010), and upward socio-economic mobility (Pfeffer, 1977). Likewise, individuals choosing to pursue an MPA and a career in the public sector may be more concerned with serving others and their country (Mosher, 1978; Frederickson and Hart, 1985; Perry and Wise, 1990). On this basis, we seek to explore the factors that predict a career choice in one sector rather than the other in a developing economy in Africa.

Gabris and Simo (1995) argued that individuals make conscious career choices, and those choices represent the sum of multiple inputs and experiences such as education, experience, access, connections, and luck. Likewise, psychological theories (e.g. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, Herzberg’s hygiene factors) inform us that individuals have similar needs (i.e. extrinsic and intrinsic needs for money, prestige, and power) regardless of the sector they pursue, although literature suggests that those who choose to serve the public prefer intrinsic rewards. There has been suggestion that altruism may also be key to predicting a career in public service (e.g. Le Grand, 2010). Therefore, it remains unclear if need fulfillment and altruism as they have been conceptualized in public service motivation literature in the west are also predictive of a career choice within the context of a developing economy where individuals are still striving to meet their basic needs. In this regard, we adopt a psychological-based approach to understand how people make career decisions based upon fulfilling individual needs, and compare how those choosing public vs private sector employment may differ in reward preferences or altruism. Mueller (1983) reported that Batswana want to advance their own careers but also contribute to the development of their country. We also extend our inquiry into the role of personality psychology such as an individual’s need for achievement, self-efficacy, locus of control, and free choice on career decision-making. Özbilgin et al. (2005) noted the role of “free choice” when making career decisions based upon the culture of the job seekers. We draw from general management and career literature to examine how traditional and protean career attitudes and work centrality help to predict career choice. We also explore how cultural values may also influence career choice within the context of public service. For example, Brown (2002) identified a “cultural neglect” in career choice, and suggested that cultural values such as individualism and collectivism play an important role in the choice of a career. The comprehensive nature of our investigation allows us to understand which factors predict a career choice in the public vs private sector by Batswana, in a nation that is developing economically, and where a cadre of professional managers is emerging.

The present study extends the literature on career choice in public service in several ways. First, we extend theorizing on career choice in public service by considering other personality psychology factors such as individual need for achievement, self-efficacy, locus of control, and free choice. To our knowledge, no study has examined how individual personality factors may be linked to a career choice in public service. Second, we examine key elements of public service motivation – reward preferences and altruism – in concert with our proposed personality factors in a single model to predict a career choice in public service. Third, our study was conducted in an African country, an area in which relatively little research on either career choice or public service motivation has been undertaken. We examine the role of cultural values since cultural beliefs influence heavily on career choice, although relatively little research has been undertaken in this regard (Brown, 2002).

Public service motivation

We first look to existing literature on public service motivation which suggests there are differences in the interests and values of those who prefer public sector careers to those in the private sector. In their foundational work, Perry and Wise (1990) suggested that individuals pursue public service because of an attraction to policy making, a commitment to social justice, and self-sacrifice for the country. Despite literature on public service motivation as a reason for choosing public sector employment (Ng and Gossett, 2013; Taylor, 2010; Vandenabeele et al., 2004), many other studies have pointed to demographic factors (such as gender and minority status) (Lewis and Frank, 2002; Naff and Crum, 1999; Blank, 1985), educational attainment (Moynihan and Pandey, 2007), reward preferences (Houston, 2000; Westover and Taylor, 2010), volunteering behaviors (Coursey et al., 2011), organizational influences (Camilleri, 2007), and institutional affiliations (e.g. religion) (Moynihan and Pandey, 2007; Vandenabeele, 2011) as also being associated with the choice of a public service career. On the basis of previous work among Batswana (Mueller, 1983), we choose altruism and reward preferences as elements of public service motivation for investigation.

Extrinsic and intrinsic motivation

Crewson (1997) provides an overview of earlier research on the question of whether or not people who choose to work for public sector organizations (i.e. primarily government employers) are motivated by factors different from those that motivate people who choose work in private organizations. The focus is on incentives that would be most effective in attracting and retaining employees in public sector organizations and assessing whether they are different from the incentives found to be useful in the business sector. The primary distinction emerging from the literature is based on whether or not there is a difference between public and private sector workers in terms of the relative importance of intrinsic and extrinsic motivating factors. That is to say, the question is whether public sector employees prioritize intrinsic motivating factors, such as a sense of accomplishment or feeling that one’s work is making a contribution, over extrinsic motivating factors, such as monetary reward or prestige more than private sector employees do (Frank and Lewis, 2004; Houston, 2000; Serra et al., 2011). We anticipate that public administration students would evince a stronger preference for intrinsic motivating factors than would business management students:

Hypotheses

H1.

Students reporting stronger intrinsic motivations are more likely to pursue a career in the public sector, while those reporting stronger extrinsic motivations are more likely to pursue a career in the private sector.

Altruism

The survey on which this study is based allows us to explore the claim that emerges from the literature, namely, persons interested in public service careers demonstrate more altruistic dispositions than those pursuing private sector careers (Le Grand, 2010; Perry, 1997; Pandey and Stazyk, 2008). The general idea underlying this proposition is that persons who are, for altruistic reasons, predisposed to help and aid others without an expectation of reward will find that public sector jobs may offer greater opportunities to fulfill this need than private, for-profit sector jobs do (Karl and Sutton, 1998; Davis, 2010; Le Grand, 2003). There have also been suggestions that those who spend time volunteering and helping others are more predisposed to public service (Coursey et al., 2011; Perry et al., 2008). On this basis, we believe that within the context of a developing economy where the private sector is emerging and personal opportunities abound, those who are more concerned with helping others and nation building are more likely to pursue a career in the public service. Conversely, we believe that those who are more interested in personal socio-economic mobility will be more interested in a career in the private sector:

Hypotheses

H2.

Students reporting higher altruistic values are more likely to pursue a career in the public sector than the private sector, while those reporting lower altruistic values are more likely to pursue a career in the private sector than the public sector.

Traditional vs protean careers

Another approach to understanding career choice was developed by Hall and Mirvis (1996) and Hall and Moss (1998) that looked at career attitudes toward “traditional” and “protean” careers. The primary difference between the concepts is that in traditional careers one typically prefers to operate in a hierarchical organization with a clear path for advancement defined by a single employer, as opposed to a protean career which is much less structured, and much more self-directed and opportunistic in seeking job opportunities in pursuit of career advancement. Vigoda-Gadot and Grimland (2008) found a positive correlation between altruism and protean careers, suggesting that those expressing protean career attitudes may also be more predisposed to public service. Likewise, Sargent and Domberger (2007) reported that individuals with a protean career orientation valued making a contribution to society, a trait consistent with public service motivation. In another study, McDonald et al. (2005) examined attributes of traditional and protean careers among public sector employees and reported gender differences in whether the careers pursued better fit the traditional or protean model. However, none of these studies examined the differences between students selecting a career in public vs the private sector. As traditional career paths are more closely linked with vertical career moves, we believe that those who are more interested in personal career mobility are more likely to select a career in the private sector, since it generally affords greater opportunities for advancement and performance-based compensation (Houston, 2000; Lyons et al., 2006). Sargent and Domberger (2007) also completed a small sample study that suggested that the values associated with a protean career led students toward public sector careers:

Hypotheses

H3.

Students expressing more protean career attitudes are more likely to pursue a career in the public sector; while those expressing more traditional career attitudes are more likely to pursue a career in the private sector.

Work centrality

Another potential predictor of a career choice in public service may be related to how central work is to one’s identity (Hirschfeld and Feild, 2000). Harpaz and Snir (2003), in their study of “workaholism” suggest that private sector workers would exhibit a greater level of work centrality (given their greater tendency to workaholism) than public sector workers although, in another study, Snir and Harpaz (2002) found no significant difference between public and private sector workers. Mohd Rasdi et al. (2009), building on the work of Mannheim (1975), hypothesize that successful managers in the public sector are more likely to view work as a central feature of their lives than less successful managers, but they did not make sector comparisons. The public sector tends to offer more formal employment policies and practices (e.g. working hours, breaks, job security), and is also seen as a more generous employer in terms of employment benefits (Bellante and Link, 1981). On the other hand, private sector employers are more likely to implement workplace policies and rewards based on meritocracy to motivate employees to higher performance (e.g. performance-based compensation). Thus, individuals who view work as more central in their lives may be more likely to pursue private sector careers because they may be motivated by extrinsic rewards and tangible employment returns, while those in public service may view work as less central in that they have fewer opportunities to modify rewards or working conditions on the basis of individual performance. This view is also consistent with the findings by Cherniss and Kane (1987) who reported that professionals in the public sector find less fulfillment through work, and thus may view work as less central in their lives. An additional factor is the importance of cattle in Botswana and the perception by many employees in the formal and urban sectors of the economy that they are earning money for the purposes of buying cattle which for many would be the “central focus” of their lives rather than their job. This has been described with respect to public sector employees, although not for private sector workers as explicitly (Picard, 1980; Mayende, 1994; Beal, 2003):

Hypotheses

H4.

Students expressing greater work centrality are more likely to pursue a career in the private sector, than those expressing lower work centrality.

Individualism-collectivism

Hofstede (1983) and Triandis and Gelfand (1998) have developed the concept of individualism and collectivism which, in its simplest expression, identifies a continuum that ranges from whether an individual believes that his or her personal preferences for, in this case, a career should be paramount (i.e. individualism) or if a person believes that he or she should defer to the preferences of a larger group (i.e. one’s family or a call from the community). These studies generally identify managers in developing countries as more likely to exhibit a collectivist understanding of relationships. Studies of other professionals have shown this to be true in Botswana, as well (Pfau, 1991; Gbadamosi, 2004), although other studies show that both individualism and community are important values (Roe, 1988). This continuum is typically employed when studying managers from two or more cultural backgrounds with the goal of understanding differences in management practices between different cultural groups (Wise and Tschirhart, 2000). While some authors have suggested that there may be a difference between sectors (private vs public) on this continuum, there have been few studies that focussed on it (Sinclair, 1991; Agrawal and Tyagi, 2009). Research also shows that individualism/collectivism is related to managerial values, philosophies, and behaviors. Ng and Burke (2010) reported that individuals espousing more collectivistic values have stronger “regard for others,” and exhibited more prosocial behaviors, while those espousing more individualistic values have stronger “regard for self.” This is not surprising given that collectivism stresses moral obligations and protection for others (Hofstede, 1983), values consistent with Perry and Wise’s (1990) public service motives:

Hypotheses

H5.

Students espousing more collectivist values are more likely to pursue a career in the public sector, while those espousing more individualistic values are more likely to pursue a career in the private sector.

Personality factors

Although career choice and decision-making may be explained through needs-based theories, we extend research on public sector career choice by also considering personality factors. The literature on career choice in management identifies several personality characteristics that one should expect to see in students seeking management careers (Rawls et al., 1975; Brown et al., 1997). However, personality factors have not been considered as potential predictors of joining public service (see the call for such study in Pandey and Stazyk, 2008). Our extended inquiry is informed by the work of Özbilgin et al. (2005) who identified four psychological factors related to a career choice in management. They are: need for achievement, self-efficacy, locus of control, and free choice. Although their work was primarily a cross-cultural comparison, we use the same factors which they identified to compare a choice in public and private sector careers in Botswana. Guyot (1962) found that managers in the public sector have a higher need for achievement than those in the private sector, and suggested that public managers may be more committed to their work than their private counterparts. Duffy and Dik (2009) conceptualized work volition in the career development process, and distinguished between “external control” and “free choice” in career decision-making. Bright et al. (2005) reported that both locus of control and chance played a role in the career decision-making among high school and university students, with 69.1 percent indicating chance events as influencing their career decisions. Rainey (1983) also noted that public managers were more likely than their private sector counterparts to emphasize the importance of following externally established rules and procedures. Thus, exploring how individual factors relate to career choice may have important implications for studying career choice in public service. Given the exploratory nature of our proposition, no a priori hypothesis is formulated. Instead, we will examine how individual need for achievement, self-efficacy, locus of control, and free choice may be related to making a career choice in public or the private sector.

Method

Section:ChooseTop of pageIntroductionConceptual background and...Method <<MeasuresFindingsDiscussionConclusionReferencesFurther readingCorresponding Author

The authors adapted and pre-tested surveys used in previous studies of factors affecting career choice (Özbilgin et al., 2005) to ensure that language and word choice were understood as the authors intended. Because the language of instruction is English, only slight modifications were needed. Surveys were administered to students enrolled in both the graduate public (MPA) and business administration (MBA) programs at the University of Botswana by distribution in several classes in each program to ensure that the full range of students in the programs would be included. A total of 143 students responded to the survey. A majority (n=121) were from Botswana, while the rest were from other African nations. Males were only slightly more numerous than females (52.9 percent). There was no difference between male and female responses on any of the predictor variables. The average age was 35.1 years, and the average work experience was 6.2 years. A large majority identified their race/ethnicity as African (98.6 percent), their religion as Christian (91.2 percent), and about half were unmarried (50.4 percent). The means, standard deviations, and correlations are provided in Table I.

Measures

Section:ChooseTop of pageIntroductionConceptual background and...MethodMeasures <<FindingsDiscussionConclusionReferencesFurther readingCorresponding Author

Extrinsic and intrinsic and rewards

Extrinsic reward (α=0.90) was assessed along five items. A sample item included “career success means earning high income.” Respondents indicated their agreement on a seven-point scale (1=strongly disagree, 7=strongly agree). Intrinsic reward (α=0.66) was also assessed along five items. A sample item included “career success means having opportunity to learn new skills.”

Altruism

Altruism was measured by five items (α=0.66). Respondents indicated their agreement with each item on a seven-point Likert scale (1=never, 7=regularly). The items included, “I have donated money to a beggar” and “I have done volunteer work for the community.”

Work centrality

Work centrality (α=0.76) was assessed using eight items. Sample items included, “I feel that my work is important” and “I feel a sense of success and satisfaction in my work.” Respondents indicated their agreement on a seven-point scale (1=definitely not, 7=definitely yes).

Traditional and protean career attitudes

Traditional and protean career attitudes were assessed using the scales developed by Hall and Mirvis (1996) and Hall and Moss (1998). The traditional career (α=0.88) was measured by four items. Respondents indicated their agreement on a seven-point scale. A sample item included “career success means reaching senior level position.” Protean career (α=0.67) was assessed using six items. A sample item was “I navigate my own career according to my plans.”

Individualism and collectivism

Individualism-collectivism was measured using a scale developed by Triandis and Gelfand (1998). Individualism (α=0.68) was measured by eight items; a sample item was “I rely on myself most of the time; I rarely rely on others.” Respondents indicated their agreement with each item on a seven-point scale. Collectivism (α=0.73) was also measured by eight items. One sample item was “Family members should stick together; no matter the sacrifices required.”

Personality factors influencing career choice

Respondents indicated the extent to which 14 items (see Table V) influenced their career choice. These items were developed by Özbilgin et al. (2005). Responses were made on a seven-point scale (1=not at all important, 7=very important). Factor analysis using Varimax rotation yielded four factors with eigenvalues greater than 1.0, accounting for 67 percent of the common variance. Need for achievement (α=0.88) had five items, self-efficacy (α=0.76) had three items, (external) locus of control (α=0.65) had three items, and free choice had a single item.

Demographics

Finally, respondents were asked to self-report their age and gender which were used as control variables (not significant). Additionally, parental (father and mother) occupation was included in our analyses to detect if they exert any influence on the respondent’s career choice.

Findings

Section:ChooseTop of pageIntroductionConceptual background and...MethodMeasuresFindings <<DiscussionConclusionReferencesFurther readingCorresponding Author

Table II shows which independent variables are significant predictors of sector choice. Students scoring higher on individualism, preference for extrinsic rewards, and espousing traditional career attitudes were significantly more likely to select a career in the private sector (MBA) over the public sector (MPA), thus providing support for H2 (altruism), H3 (protean career) and H5 (collectivism). Altruism and work centrality (H1 and H4) did not predict choosing a career in either the public or private sector. Table III presents the standardized function coefficients (b_i), which suggest that preference for a traditional career path and extrinsic rewards contribute the most to distinguishing those who select private and public sector graduate training. The correlation coefficients in the table indicate the extent to which each variable correlates with the resulting discriminant function. Note that traditional career attitudes, individualism, extrinsic rewards, and altruism were moderately correlated with the overall discriminant function. The classification results (Table IV) also show that the model correctly predicts the career choice of 81.3 percent of those who are in the MBA program, and 86.7 percent of those in the MPA program.

Personality factors influencing career choice

Few differences were found in the personality factors influencing career choice in the public or the private sector. Those selecting a career in public administration were slightly more likely to indicate a higher external locus of control (p<0.05) (see Table V).

Discussion

Section:ChooseTop of pageIntroductionConceptual background and...MethodMeasuresFindingsDiscussion <<ConclusionReferencesFurther readingCorresponding Author

The purpose of this paper was to explore whether or not factors that had been identified as influencing career choice, specifically with respect to the choice of sector, would be applicable in a developing African country. We tested some of the known factors that contribute to public service motivation from previous studies conducted in western developed countries. We also tested additional factors from career theories and individual personality factors to extend theorizing on public service motivation.

With respect to the two elements suggested by public service motivation literature – higher levels of altruism and a greater value preference for intrinsically-motivated work that has been found in public sector workers when compared to private sector employees – we found mixed results. Consistent with previous findings, public administration students were more likely to identify the intrinsic benefits of a job as having greater value to them than did business students who were more likely to prefer extrinsic rewards. Perhaps most surprisingly, students pursuing a private sector career scored higher than students pursuing public administration on altruism, a finding inconsistent with the literature on public service motivation. The reasons for this difference are not clear, although they are consistent with the investigations of Dibapile (2005) who, in a study of students in Botswana who were pursuing graduate education, found altruistic motivations a relatively rare reason given for pursuing a teaching career. In another study, Mueller (1983) reported that public servants in Botswana showed an unexpectedly high level of altruistic motivation for performing their jobs well, but he was not making a comparison with private sector workers in the country. Studies on wage remittance practices in Botswana (Lucas and Stark, 1985), on willingness to participate in civil society (Holm et al., 1996), and on openness to immigrants (Campbell, 2003) explore various aspects of altruism, but they do not provide any indication as to why there should be a difference between public and private sector workers on this factor. Another possible explanation that is emerging in findings from the economics literature has suggested that extrinsic rewards may “crowd out[2]” altruism and the satisfaction provided by intrinsic rewards that come from public service and that this is particularly true for women (Benabou and Tirole, 2006; Mellström and Johannesson, 2008; Georgellis et al., 2009). In a country like Botswana, government jobs have long been among the most lucrative and most stable available to indigenous citizens and, until recently, they attracted nearly every educated person regardless of their motivation. The economists referenced earlier might conclude that this means the public sector is relying too heavily on extrinsic rewards and should set the levels of salaries and benefits to more efficiently attract only those motivated by the fact that they intrinsically value the nature of the work (Georgellis et al., 2009). The inconsistent finding with altruistic motives as an antecedent of public service motivations in western countries is an area requiring further investigation. In the developed world, government employment conditions are usually comparable to those found in the private sector with some competition between the sectors on issues like pay and benefits. In developing countries, however, government may often be the only viable formal sector employer for much of the educated population. While this does not mean that Batswana in government are not motivated by a sense of altruism and the intrinsic rewards that come from their work, there may be many who are there because it is the only job capable of providing the extrinsic benefits that they desire or need. In the early years after independence, every university graduate was expected to assume a position in government as a condition of the government having financed their educations (Gossett, 1986). In fact, it was only in 1993 that, for the first time, the government was not able to assign all of the university graduates to jobs in government and/or parastatals (Botswana Directorate of Public Service Management, 1995).

With respect to our hypotheses concerning other factors that may be related to a career choice in public service or the private sector – traditional vs protean career, work centrality, and individualism/collectivism – the results were also mixed. Consistent with previous findings, students pursuing a private sector career path expressed stronger “traditional” career attitudes (H3) and exhibited more individualistic values (H5) when compared to students pursuing public service. On the question of work centrality to their lives (H4), there was no significant difference between Batswana students pursuing the different degrees. To the extent that the protean career path is seen as both more fluid and more self-directed and given that it is a more prominent feature of students pursuing careers in the public sector, this may suggest two possibilities worthy of further investigation. First, the lower level of interest in a traditional career path through a hierarchy may suggest that there is an interest in leaving government as an employer at some point or, at a less extreme level, in moving around to various departments within the government over the course of one’s career. Government in Botswana certainly offers the most varied work choices and also the widest variety of geographical locations for work when compared to any single private sector employer in the country. Now that the first post-independence generation of university graduates is beginning to retire, careful study of their career paths may help shed light on what the terms “traditional” and “protean” might mean in the context of a developing country.

With respect to the individualism/collectivism continuum, it should be noted that the Batswana respondents were generally much higher in expressing collectivist values than is typically found in developed countries in the west (Hofstede, 1983). Still, students pursuing private sector careers were significantly more likely to express agreement with the individualistic values in the study. This finding is consistent with the fact that they are more motivated by extrinsic rewards which, in the private sector, are based much more on individual performance rather than a static salary progression ladder based more on seniority than performance. However, this result is also consistent with literature referenced previously that extrinsic rewards can “crowd out” intrinsic rewards; public sector workers motivated by intrinsic values are more likely to devalue individualistic behaviors in favor of those that create community and, perhaps, uniform treatment. The work centrality responses may have been affected by the fact that this survey was administered to students, not all of whom were currently working. As students pursuing an advanced degree, the context in which the survey was administered may have had them focussing on their future jobs which, given the effort they were putting forth in order to obtain it, meant that they were all equally likely to see the work as central to their lives at this particular time.

Finally, we found few differences in individual personality traits among public administration and business students. Only external locus of control was predictive of a career choice in public service vis-à-vis the private sector. One possible explanation may have to do with the fact that university graduates expect to work for the government especially in developing countries such as Botswana (Gossett, 1986), leaving students to feel that they have restricted options in their career choices. The tendency toward an external locus of control has been demonstrated in other studies of university students in Botswana (Plattner et al., 2009; Plattner and Mzingwane, 2008; Dibapile, 2005). However, this may change as economic development in Botswana continues to grow, and more career choices are available to Batswana, much like China and other countries that have historically depended on government employment.

Conclusion

Section:ChooseTop of pageIntroductionConceptual background and...MethodMeasuresFindingsDiscussionConclusion <<ReferencesFurther readingCorresponding Author

In summary, we have mixed findings with respect to a career choice in public service theorizing based on studies conducted in western countries. Altruism was not found to be predictive of a desire for public service, possibly due to the government playing a significant role in graduate hirings. However, even in a society where, overall, people express values consistent with a collectivist world view, the items associated with greater individualism predicted a career choice for the private sector, consistent with western individualistic values. Likewise, preference for extrinsic rewards and traditional career attitudes were predictive of private sector careers. This study, conducted using a sample of graduate management students in Botswana, is noteworthy, because it suggests that in a society with an emerging formal economy and a historically dominant public sector, the factors found in western studies may not be fully applicable. Furthermore, Botswana represents a developing economy where the private-for-profit sector is emerging, and the government could soon be facing serious competition with industry for the top university graduates. Government in particular will need to develop a strategy for attracting the best students to choose employment in the public service over career options presented in the private sector.

A few limitations of the study should be noted to put the findings in context. First, the data were collected using self-reports which may raise the possibility of common method variance. Second, some of the measures, although established in previous studies, had lower reliabilities in the present study. Nonetheless, the measures we used have been established is previous studies with good internal reliabilities. Third, the sample was relatively small, hence caution should be taken when interpreting the results. Finally, the graduate management students in Botswana may not be representative of other students in Africa. In closing, we call for more investigation into public service motivation theorizing, and its generalizability outside of western developed countries. We also suggest that future research incorporate qualitative work such as interviews with university graduates to better understand their motivations in making career choices.

Table I Means, standard deviations, and correlations among the variables used in the analyses

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	M	SD	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8	9	10	11	12	13
1. Gender			1
2. Age	34.63	7.37	−0.13	1
3. Altruism	21.72	5.41	−0.11	0.08	1
4. Individualism	39.04	7.14	−0.21*	−0.04	0.17*	1
5. Collectivism	47.72	5.10	0.032	0.07	0.29**	0.29**	1
6. Work centrality	46.99	5.65	−0.01	0.24**	0.22*	0.25**	0.33**	1
7. Extrinsic reward	24.31	8.06	−0.27**	0.21*	0.22*	0.26**	0.14	0.18*	1
8. Intrinsic reward	31.39	3.17	0.034	0.03	0.13	0.12	0.27**	0.46**	0.13	1
9. Protean career	36.69	4.02	−0.11	0.06	0.26**	0.08	0.17	0.38**	0.27**	0.71**	1
10. Traditional career	19.94	6.59	−0.26**	0.24**	0.24**	0.25**	0.13	0.17	0.98**	0.11	0.26**	1
11. Father sector	2.61	1.18	−0.14	0.26**	0.12	0.01	0.07	0.12	0.21*	−0.14	0.02	0.23*	1
12. Mother sector	2.97	1.16	−0.06	0.33**	0.11	−0.17*	−0.11	0.09	0.12	−0.01	0.07	0.14	0.33**	1
13. Father occupation	1.41	0.50	−0.01	−0.17	−0.07	0.15	0.00	0.07	0.03	−0.05	−0.13	0.02	−0.24*	−0.33*	1
14. Mother occupation	1.41	0.49	0.05	−0.15	−0.01	−0.02	0.07	0.18	−0.02	0.02	0.12	−0.02	−0.01	−0.38**	0.29*

• Notes: **p<0.01; *p<0.05 (two-tailed)

---

Table I Means, standard deviations, and correlations among the variables used in the analyses

---

Table II Predictor variable means on the discriminant function

---

	Career choice
Predictor	MPA	MBA
Altruism	20.07*	23.31*
Individualism	38.07**	42.19**
Collectivism	48.67	47.28
Work centrality	44.73	46.28
Extrinsic rewards	19.60**	25.75**
Intrinsic rewards	30.73	31.47
Protean career	35.33	36.69
Traditional career	15.80**	21.25**
Father’s sector	1.53	1.63
Mother’s sector	1.73	1.53
Father’s occupation	1.60	1.47
Mother’s occupation	1.53	1.31

• Notes: Within each row, means for each predictor are statistically different from each other at the **p<0.05; *p<0.10 levels

---

Table II Predictor variable means on the discriminant function

---

Table III Standardized function coefficients and correlation coefficients

---

	Standardized function coefficients	Correlations between variables and discriminant function
Traditional career	2.71	0.45
Individualism	0.58	0.42
Father’s sector	0.50	0.10
Altruism	0.27	0.36
Intrinsic rewards	0.15	0.15
Work centrality	0.14	0.16
Mother’s occupation	0.02	−0.28
Protean career	−0.11	0.21
Father’s occupation	−0.28	−0.16
Collectivism	−0.51	−0.19
Mother’s sector	−0.71	−0.24
Extrinsic rewards	−2.29	0.41

• Notes:λ=0.63; χ²=17.98; p=0.116

---

Table III Standardized function coefficients and correlation coefficients

---

Table IV Percentage of career choice correctly predicted for each program

---

	Predicted group membership
	MBA	MPA	Total
Original
% MBA	81.3	18.8	100.0
% MPA	13.3	86.7	100.0

• Note: 83.0 percent of original grouped cases correctly classified

---

Table IV Percentage of career choice correctly predicted for each program

---

Table V Factors influencing career choice

---

	MBA (n=64)		MPA (n=37)
	M	SD	M	SD	Effect size	p
Need for achievement	26.54	7.70	24.88	7.52	0.10	0.31
Self-efficacy	17.27	4.10	17.50	4.06	0.00	0.79
Locus of control	10.01	4.14	13.24	5.03	0.23	0.02
Free choice	5.81	1.58	6.00	1.44	0.06	0.55

• Notes:n=101. Univariate results from MANOVA. Means, SD, effect sizes and p-values for need for achievement, self-efficacy, locus of control, and free choice

---

Table V Factors influencing career choice

---

Notes

• 1..  There is a large body of literature that shows that college majors (fields of study) are indicative of career/occupational choice. Tong and Straussman (2003) note that China launched the MPA program to attract individuals interested in public sector careers, following the success of MBA programs in attracting business professionals. Another link between degree choice and career intention comes from Henstra and McGowan (2016) who examined the entry essays of MPA students. Students seeking entry into the MPA program clearly indicated a strong desire to join the Canadian public service. Carpenter et al. (2012) similarly argue that intent to join the public sector is best predicted by those who are studying for an MPA degree (pre-entry). We thank the reviewer for raising this point.

• 2..  Providing someone with extrinsic rewards diminishes their intrinsic motivation to perform a task.

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Further reading

1.

Bénabou, R. and Tirole, J. (2006), “Incentives and prosocial behavior”, The American Economic Review, Vol. 96 No. 5, pp. 1652-1678. [Crossref], [ISI], [Google Scholar] [Infotrieve]

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Grimland, S., Vigoda-Gadot, E. and Baruch, Y. (2012), “Career attitudes and success of managers: the impact of chance event, protean, and traditional careers”, The International Journal of Human Resource Management, Vol. 23 No. 6, pp. 1074-1094. [Crossref], [ISI], [Google Scholar] [Infotrieve]

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Houston, D.J. (2006), “‘Walking the walk’ of public service motivation: public employees and charitable gifts of time, blood, and money”, Journal of Public Administration Research & Theory, Vol. 16 No. 1, pp. 67-86. [Crossref], [ISI], [Google Scholar] [Infotrieve]

4.

Modise, O.M. (2005), “Labor market demand and incipient professionalization in African adult education: tracing graduates of University of Botswana adult education programs”, ProQuest dissertations and theses, The Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL. [Google Scholar]

5.

Roe, E.M. (1993), “Public service, rural development and careers in public management: a case study of expatriate advising and African land reform”, World Development, Vol. 21 No. 3, pp. 349-365. [Crossref], [ISI], [Google Scholar] [Infotrieve]

6.

Tyagi, A. and Agrawal, R.K. (2010), “Emerging employment relationships: issues & concerns in psychological contract”, Indian Journal of Industrial Relations, pp. 381-395. [Google Scholar]

7.

Wise, L.R. and Tschirhart, M. (2000), “Examining empirical evidence on diversity effects: how useful is diversity research for public‐sector managers?”, Public Administration Review, Vol. 60 No. 5, pp. 386-394. [Crossref], [ISI], [Google Scholar] [Infotrieve]

Corresponding Author

Section:ChooseTop of pageIntroductionConceptual background and...MethodMeasuresFindingsDiscussionConclusionReferencesFurther readingCorresponding Author <<

Eddy S.W. Ng can be contacted at: edng@dal.ca